[转载]文献：READING TERMS TO KNOW

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作者：鲁子问

前几天为人解释几个阅读术语，想到曾看到美国田纳西州的阅读选修课课程标准中有一个阅读教学的术语表，于是抽空找出来，可以免去我的一些口舌之劳。

其实，我一直认为课标应该有术语表，曾在2005年的一篇文章中就提到过，只是无法实现。

READING TERMS TO KNOW

1. Authentic assessment uses actual literacy tasks for the purpose of determining student
5 B) [$ h9 ]( g3 Aperformance, as opposed to relying solely on traditional forms of testing.

; k. p  w9 {) G8 A2 c2. Balanced reading is a reading program which includes phonemic awareness, decoding, fluency,
) ]6 v% r0 F( `calling on prior knowledge, vocabulary-building, comprehension, and motivation.

3. Clustering is grouping information to help children remember it better; a form of brainstorming.
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4 e$ N6 R5 f* h! G# K' X( y, [4. Critical listening is listening for a specific purpose (e.g., evaluation, information, entertainment).

5. Critical reading is reading “text in such a way as to question assumptions, explore perspectives,
/ k7 \$ j% L. u# ]  Iand critique underlying social and political values or stances.” (IRA and NCTE, 1996, p.71)
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  d1 v" p2 u, u6 t' t; S$ `6. Experience stories are teacher-directed stories written by the teacher and the students to reflect a group experience.

6 [' S. }4 [8 H+ r* k# k" z8 T0 r7. Expository writing refers to a precise, factual, informational writing style.
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# Z# z6 z, h0 e. Y3 b( l6 @8. Implied meaning is meaning which cannot be cited from the text but which may be drawn from
9 d- `: y4 P8 U" W/ _. Bthe reading; reading “between the lines.”

9. Letter-sound correspondence means recognizing the corresponding sound of a specific letter
- p. {: e4 _; n) E! \when that letter is seen or heard.

10. Metacognition is the awareness and knowledge of one’s mental processes such that one can
7 n1 Z. s) {  ~5 `+ G! D$ ]monitor, regulate, and direct them to a desired end; self-mediation; thoughts about thinking
(cognition); for example, thinking about how to understand a reading selection.

11. Non-print text means visual media other than printed material (e.g., photographs, movies,
, y& [' g( i, W3 `symbols).

12. Paired reading means partners reading aloud to each other for the purpose of practicing, sharing, developing fluency, communicating information, or modeling oral reading technique.

: l4 E4 k: A  C13. Paired writing refers to two students collaborating to create one piece.
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$ ?; y# u! T: j% n; {14. Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound; for example, the word “cat” has three phonemes.
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15. Phoneme awareness is an understanding that speech consists of a series of small sound parts.
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16. Phonics is the association of speech sounds with printed symbols.

17. Print text is a written, typed, or printed version of a piece of prose or poetry.
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18. Reading is a complex developmental challenge that we know to be intertwined with many other
% M8 B/ G2 i5 P& ]1 v! xdevelopmental accomplishments: attention, memory, language, and motivation, for example.
Reading is not only a cognitive psycholinguistic activity but also a social activity.
6 W4 Z3 \; g/ m5 B& h1 e/ tBeing a good reader in English means that a child has gained a functional knowledge of the
' [; J" g9 m" O' Cprinciples of the English alphabetic writing system. Young children gain functional knowledge
4 w) \" l8 t, _of the parts, products, and uses of the writing system from their ability to attend to and analyze
the external sound structure of spoken words. Understanding the basic alphabetic principle
requires an awareness that spoken language can be analyzed into strings of separable words, and
words, in turn, into sequences of syllables and phonemes within syllables.
) E, K) \% A/ W/ lBeyond knowledge about how the English writing system works, though, there is a point in a
" N+ ~1 K( \) ?+ V% Fchild’s growth when we expect “real reading” to start. Children are expected, without help, to
  Y. B9 ~, U+ f' {read some unfamiliar texts, relying on the print and drawing meaning from it. (Preventing
- O) t; I6 o: O6 s/ a# NReading Difficulties in Young Children, p.15)
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19. Reading process is a process in which we construct meaning from print. Any of the subprocesses, such as word identification or comprehension, that are involved in the act of reading.
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  m8 A/ G0 }2 g- I20. Reflection (1)The process or result of seriously thinking over one’s experiences, especially those
; F8 A! {# g" l( h$ u% [  Uvalued. (2)An approach to problem solving that emphasizes the careful consideration of the
1 I  `6 Q( D2 y8 t( P" t' m1 Nnature of the problem, the thorough planning of procedures to solve the problem, and the
monitoring of the processes used in reaching a solution. (3)In Rosenblatt’s (1978) transactional
% n( x- u! @& u4 G, P: \. ?7 E  xtheory of reading, a late or final phase of the reading process in which the significance of the
8 z% E+ M# @8 E4 k+ `3 D) Yreader’s evocation of the text is reviewed and evaluated. (4)A sign. (5)Introspection.
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21. Scaffolding is the support and guidance provided by an adult that helps a student function on a
higher level; students develop new cognitive abilities when a teacher leads them through taskoriented interactions.
+ H3 I( Z! P; N2 c/ FThe student is seen as constructing an edifice that represents her cognitive abilities. The
0 u2 S0 y% @5 q0 F4 D8 j* pconstruction starts from the ground up, on the foundation of what is already known and can be
( F% i3 D- j6 cdone. The new is built on top of the known.
% q+ M3 [5 G' _/ @. P6 y( r& S. uThe teacher has to provide this scaffold to support the construction, which is proceeding from the
ground into the atmosphere of the previously known. The scaffold is the environment the teacher
9 Z% I; l" }" |, O5 @* r  B2 K. t7 Ocreates, the instructional support, and the processes and language that are lent to the student in the context of approaching a task and developing the abilities to meet it.
Scaffolding must begin from what is near to the student’s experience and build from what is
further from his experience. Michael Smith calls this moving from “near to home” to “far from
home”; you have to start from home when you journey somewhere new. Likewise, at the
beginning of a new task, the scaffolding should be concrete, external, and visible. This is why
math skills are learned from manipulatives, and fractions from pies and graphs. Eventually, these
. q. N' j, U, f2 z' O9 Z7 l6 N: Hconcrete and external models can be internalized and used for abstract thought. One of the
problems of reading is that the processes are internal, hidden, and abstract. Such strategies as a
DRTA make the hidden processes external, visible, and available to students so that they can be
scaffolded to use and master new reading strategies.
According to Berk and Winsler (1995), scaffolding is an interaction style that fosters cognitive
growth and success in performing specific tasks. It is characterized by joint problem solving of
an interesting, meaningful, collaboratively approached problem. Another quality of scaffolding is
“intersubjectivity”, which they defined as the process whereby two participants who begin a task
with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding. In other words, a student adjusts
' X! N% S, ^* D+ U" H7 Q1 pher perspective, strategy use, and understanding to gain a more mature approach to the problem,
# u2 V' b  L. U6 R2 Zone that is exhibited by the teacher. They stress that scaffolding also includes concern, warmth,
and responsiveness. Praise and feedback are important elements, as are talking through phases of
the task. Scaffolding also keeps the student in Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development or
ZPD, and promotes “self-regulation.” The student, therefore, takes as much responsibility as
possible, and eventually takes on the language and strategies to regulate independent behavior in
such a way to complete the task on her own.
0 k( p  k. Z. ~' xThe ultimate goal, of course, is to bring the previously unmastered processes of completing a task
+ ~$ [/ v  ]& @( Winto the students’ Zone of Actual Development or ZAD so that they can do the task without help.
Reaching this point requires lots of practice and is a significant learning accomplishment.

22. Schema is a unit of organized knowledge. It includes how a person thinks and acts when
( V) u: H, T$ Q% Aplanning and executing and evaluating performance on a task and its outcomes.
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0 `  b$ l' H% h! ^% F9 Z& ^23. Shared reading is all reading that is not individual; this can include paired reading, read-alouds, literacy circles, small groups, and choral reading.

24. Visual message refers to non-print texts (e.g., cartoons, posters, pictures).

" S( {5 u$ e& g0 s25. Word families are groups of words having similar roots or stems: --ight, --oon.

6 T& i0 B. M1 u4 Y+ }26. Word play consists of addressing words through games, rhymes, tongue twisters; any method
, I: G! X% C: i4 a9 Ithat increases students’ awareness of the meaning and value of individual words.
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27. Word walls consist of words posted on classroom walls as a means of immersing students in
0 a: [7 S5 q. W5 h' }, Mlanguage. Students add new words as they come in contact with them. Word walls can be used
to teach vocabulary, pronunciation, word families, categorization, and spelling.

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